Hebrew History Essay

Question #1 What were the major eras/events in Hebrew history? What importance do they have in Western Civilizations? Is the Bible a reasonably accurate source for the History of the Jewish people from the Egyptian captivity to the Babylonian captivity? The history of the Hebrew people is marked by war, internal conflict and an ongoing struggle for survival. Along the way, the Hebrews have crafted a rich tapestry of accomplishments through perseverance and faith. On more than one occasion, the majority of the Hebrew people have been enslaved. At other times, they were powerful and unquestioned rulers of their domain. A timeline of Jewish history shows these remarkable contrasts. The best contemporary source for the early origins of the Hebrew people is the Bible. This book contains a detailed chronology of the Hebrew people, their culture and their faith over a centuries-long time span. The first five books of the Bible comprise the Jewish Torah. These five books trace the creation of the world, its destruction by flood, the enslavement of the Jewish people, their escape, and the establishment of the nation of Israel. The thriving nation, would not last, though. It was subjugated by the Babylonians in the 700s B.C.E. In between the Egyptian and Babylon enslavements, the Hebrew people took an epic journey. According to the Bible Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt in about 1446 B.C.E. Shortly after, The Ten Commandments were given by God, laying the foundation for all future Jewish law. Thirty years after the Israelites entered Canaan, the Judges began their rule. A spectacular temple was completed in Jerusalem in about 959 B.C.E. A number of brutal wars followed in the next century. Israel itself had become a divided nation by this time. A weakened Israel had fallen captive to the Babylonians by about 586 B.C.E. The Torah is essentially a contemporary account, written by Moses and other early Jewish leaders. It spans from the creation of the world to the entry of the Hebrews into Canaan after escaping the Egyptians. The rest of the Old Testament chronicles the history of the Israeli nation, in addition to containing numerous prayers, songs, prophesies and accounts of miraculous happenings. Apart from the Biblical account, the Jewish people are mentioned in Egyptian texts dating back to 1440 B.C.E. Early Jewish history is intimately tied to the ancient Egyptian empires. Hebrew history has had a profound effect on Western Civilization. The Christian Bible, which contains the Jewish Torah along with centuries of historical accounts of Jewish culture, and is still the most widely read book in the world. Christ himself was Jewish. The Hebrews also contributed technical knowledge to the Western world. For example, the famous glassmakers of Italy were preceded by the Jewish glassmakers of ancient times. It is they who were primarily responsible for introducing this art to the world. For many, the Bible is the only credible source tracing history back to its origins. For Christians and non-Christians alike it shapes perception of the world around us. Orthodox Hebrews never accepted the Bible’s New Testament as doctrine. Instead of being the messiah, Christ is regarded as a prophet or teacher. As Christianity spread around the world, the Hebrew people were increasingly scapegoated for Christ’s death and persecuted for their rejection of him as the messiah. A deep anti-Semitism set in across Europe and spread to the new world. This has resulted in dire consequences throughout history and especially in the twentieth century. The Bible is a detailed and moving account of Jewish history. It is constructed dually as a book of history and a book of faith. Therefore, it cannot be expected to give a complete picture of all the complexities present in the development of the Hebrew nation. It is written from the perspective of a small fraction of the participants. In the following centuries scholars modified some portions of the text. Some other portions were deleted or lost. Given the lack of alternate perspectives in the Bible, it is clear that the writers and caretakers of it took extraordinary care to present and preserve the story as they believed it to be. As a result it gives us a series of signposts that, in many cases, are confirmed by other ancient texts and oral traditions. The details will always be a matter of individual perception, but the Bible does provide a relatively accurate road map to the history of these extraordinary people. The most critical event in the history of Judaism is their deliverance from four hundred years of slavery to the Egyptian Pharaoh. According to the Bible, Moses and his brother Aaron were chosen to lead the Hebrew people on this miraculous escape. After several plagues were put upon the Egyptian people the Pharaoh was finally convinced to let the people go. He soon changed his mind, but the Red Sea swallowed up the Egyptian army as they tried to pursue the Hebrews. The Hebrew tribes lived in the desert for forty years until God allowed them to enter the promised land of Canaan. While the Hebrews were in the desert many of the Jewish rites and traditions were created that are still practiced today. Entering Canaan would not be easy, however. The Israelites waged war and defeated many of the tribes already living in the area. The land was divided into twelve subsections, one for each of the twelve tribes of Israel. Hundreds of years of wars and in-fighting followed as the nation of Israel tried to establish itself. Archaeological evidence found in recent years seems to confirm many events related in the Bible. The evidence also raises more questions, however. Archaeology and modern science has its limitations. Many of the major events in the Bible are backed up by modern evidence. It is more difficult to ascertain why and how these events happened. Question #2 In what way were the economic foundations of the Roman and the Han empires similar? How do you account for the similarity? How were they different? What were the consequences of the differences? During the Han dynasty, the Chinese economy underwent substantial changes. At the beginning of the period the economy was primarily based on subsistence farming. Trading activity was minimal and most farms were small family-run operations. Later in this period, a more substantial trade network emerged. A peasant class somewhat dependent on trade markets became more widespread. Grain and rice were the primary crops of the region. They were often used to pay for other goods and services. Rice crops were particularly robust as farmers constantly improved their farming methods. A trend toward commercialization of these products characterized this period. Industry also began to emerge during this period. Inventors, so prolific during the early part of the dynasty, began to lag behind their counterparts on other continents during the late part of the dynasty. The expansion of trade networks also dried up. The caused an economic vulnerability that enemies would effectively exploit. The Roman Empire became an economic powerhouse based essentially on its continual conquest of new areas. Eventually, this strength would become weaknesses. The Roman economy had several different weaknesses that played a role in the ultimate collapse of the empire. The Roman Empire economy specialized in luxury goods, architecture and infrastructure, and creating war-related materiel’. In pre-conquest times the Roman economy was much smaller, but it was also better balanced. Farms surrounded and supplied a central city-state where merchants, tradesmen and a professional class worked. The expansion of the empire forced the Romans to adopt a new monetary system based on both silver and gold. The availability of these metals varied causing the value of each in relation to the other to change frequently. This creation caused confusion and a lack of full faith in the monetary system in the years when the empire was expanding most rapidly. This, in turn, set the table for further difficulties down the road. As the empire became less centralized the cost of maintaining it rose consistently. Meanwhile income revenues were less dependable and predictable. Emperors began to rely heavily on slave labor and taxation to support the empire. Defending the widespread empire entailed enormous costs. Over time the empire became stretched too thin. In a desperate effort to remain financially viable, the Roman emperors reduced the actual content of silver and gold within their coinage. In other words, the face value of the coins was more than they were actually worth. The creation of a widely practiced monetary system allowed the economy to diversify and innovate. When the monetary system became less reliable the opposite began to occur. Due to slave labor, heavy taxation and other factors, economic innovation in Rome ground to a halt. The Romans could no longer afford to arm and equip their vast army. Far-flung outposts of Roman power became increasingly vulnerable. The â€Å"barbarians† from northern Europe were eventually able to penetrate the heart of the Roman Empire. Essentially, the Roman Empire operated an early example of free market capitalism. Their version of capitalism had several flaws that ultimately led to its destruction. Free market capitalism on this scale would not emerge again for many centuries. The fates of the Roman and Han empires exposed an ironic fact about economics and national security. When trade with outside entities peaked, so did the relative power of the empires. On the other hand, when trade was cut off or simply dried up, the empires were exposed to great risk. Their fates also showed the vulnerability of economies based in a large part on slave labor. In the Roman Empire, slaves were acquired from conquered territories and made to do much of the work that kept the empire operating smoothly. In the Han dynasty, people actually sold themselves and their families into slavery. Slave labor is inherently inefficient. Even for those who willingly sold themselves into slavery, production levels are rarely as great as that of free workers. Both economies eventually frowned on the use of slavery in such a widespread way, but economic stagnation had already set in. Both empires might be viewed as examples of the dangers of over-expansion. This is especially true of the Romans, who primarily relied on their war gains to support their economy. When the pace of conquest slowed, so did the economy. The Han dynasty differs in its initial focus on subsistence farming before converting to a more consumer-based economy. Both economies had their strong and weak points, but the Roman economy was particularly vulnerable to collapse. Question #3 What effects did the Indian Ocean trade have on the societies that took part in it? How is trade related to the dissemination of technology? Define the term â€Å"Africanity† and explain the development of â€Å"Africanity† in terms of Bantu migrations. Ancient Indian Ocean trade not only introduced new goods to various societies; it also began a centuries-long spread of information, technology, religion, language and culture. Trade across the Indian Ocean was well-established at least two thousand years ago. Cities sprung up along the African and Middle Eastern coasts. In this time port cities were primarily isolated from inland areas, meaning that the coastal cities developed unique identities of their own. Kinship and trade among the coastal cities in different regions led to a â€Å"de-nationalization† of these peoples. A sailor was a sailor first, and the citizen of a specific regime second. These sailors often married women in far away points. The wives, in effect, served as bridges between cultures. Generally speaking, using sea routes for trading was much less expensive than moving goods over land. Also overland routes were often blocked or impeded by armed forces or bandits. As Indian Ocean ship building improved, what resulted was an ancient version of globalism. The cross-cultural social and economic effects we see today were present in antiquity on a smaller scale. The relatively vast distances necessary to travel the Indian Ocean gave rise to new techniques and methods in shipbuilding. These methods were diffused across cultures along with improvements in tools, farming methods and other technologies. Ships were capable of transporting goods farther than ever before. There is strong evidence of an ancient trade triangle between Southern Africa, Egypt and India. There is also evidence that early traders ventured as far as Java in the Far East. As today, not everybody in ancient times was content with these cross-cultural influences. As the Islamic empire grew, an increasing number of Africans became affected by their influence. Some were content with this and other outside influences. Others may not have been. In about 1000 B.C.E. the first of several large migrations began. â€Å"Africanity† is a term of identity for the African people. It is distinctly different and less clearly defined than identifiers for other cultures. In fact, African languages have no one specific word for â€Å"identity†. In our language identity refers to an independent individual with clear boundaries from other individuals. In Africa, identity is more complex. Instead of being a static identifier, â€Å"Africanity† refers to an ongoing process of finding one’s identity within the larger culture. There is no singular identity. One’s identity is always being formed and is dependent on interaction with others. Africanity also is expressed discovering one’s differences from others. It is also a come to be a term of resistance to the imposed definitions of identity from the Europeans and others. Africans are not so comfortably identified in terms of a geographic description as Europeans or Americans might be. Identity is a process rather than a label. The Bantu are a large group of Africans loosely defined by language and tribal connections. In several large waves, the Bantu migrated throughout Africa. They diffused their language, culture and technological developments while also absorbing characteristics of the people they came into contact with. The Bantu migrated primarily from north to south over about 1500 years. Their possible reasons were numerous and still somewhat mysterious. Overpopulation and the lack of arable land for agriculture are often cites as reasons for this tremendous population shift. Others have proposed more primal reasons. Were the Bantu migrations an expression of â€Å"Africanity†? Some Bantu were moving away from attacks by outside empires. More pervasive were the encroaching cultural and religious influences that some Bantu may have felt were drawing them away from their own pursuit of identity and forcing outside standards upon them. There is still a lot of debate as to why such a large number of Bantu migrated throughut Africa in successive waves. It may have been strictly economic or there may have been deeper elements involved. Whatever their reason; their integration and diffusion of other African societies and their knack for survival are in their own ways expressions of Africanity. Question #5 Discuss the origins of Islam, and the development of the religion of Islam, the umma, and the three branches of Islam (Sunni, Shiite, and Kharijite). What were the causes of the decline of the caliphate? The faith of Islam is thousands of years old. It traces its history to many of the same characters mentioned in the Bible and the Torah. For instance, Abraham is a central figure in all three texts. Islam would go on to take unique perspectives and characteristics from the other two, partially due to regional differences. As individual religions became the main defining characteristic of competing nation states, wars in the name of religion became commonplace. The primary figure in the development of Islam was the prophet Mohammed. He was born approximately 570 B.C. in the town of Mecca (in modern day Saudi Arabia). He rejected the polytheism commonly practiced around him in favor of one God, called Allah. In his 40s, Mohammed began receiving divine revelations which he dutifully recorded for posterity. These revelations formed the central part of the Qu’ran, the book of faith for the religion of Islam. Lacking acceptance from his peers, and from Jewish and Christian critics, Mohammed moved his ministry to the city of Medina. From Mohamed’s time all the way to the present day differing views on the Qu’ran have caused conflict within the Muslim world. There is a very strict constructionist view of the book that demands adherence to the book’s tenets even when taken to extreme levels. On the other side a more moderate wing of Islamic leaders who believe that contact and cooperation with the non-Islamic world is not living in violation of the Qu’ran. After Mohammed’s death, there was no clear successor to his leadership. Various local sects competed for this leadership with three main groups emerging – Sunni, Shiite and Kharijite. To this day the three groups have doctrinal differences that sometimes result in bitter conflicts. Each group claims a different line of succession tracing all the way back to Mohammed himself. For instance, the Shi’a believe that the legitimate line of leadership must run directly through the family of Mohammed, while the Sunni and others believe that leadership can be politically elected from outside Mohammed’s family tree. During Mohammed’s life the influence of Islam remained primarily within the Arabian Peninsula. Shortly after his death Islamic armies began to conquer nearby regions, eventually reaching Western Europe and Israel. Early Islam also promoted the acquisition of scientific knowledge. As a result, early Islamic society was highly advanced. The Umma is a term that describes a wide variety of Islamic people. It includes Islamic people in all primary spheres of Islamic influence. Most commonly, the Umma refers to all Islamic peoples from Africa to the easternmost point of Pakistan. The term dates back to ancient Islam. The centralization of the Islamic governmental structure lasted about 200 years. By the end of this period powerful emirs began to rule individual kingdoms within the empire. Control by a centralized caliphate was proving to be impractical and unresponsive to the defensive needs of certain localized areas. Eminent scholars argued increasingly that the security of the Umma was at risk under the caliphate system. Many leaders wanted to maintain the caliphate while also delegating more day-to-day management to local authorities. This idea gradually began to take hold. Meanwhile, waves of Turkish and Selijug and other immigrants helped accelerate the process toward local emirates. Economic and security factors eroded the Caliphate and gave rise to a network of smaller emirates.